Invasion of Tenochtitlan

Just after midnight on July 1, 1520, a woman was gathering water at the edge of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan (tay-nawch-TEE-tlan). Out of the corner of her eye, she saw a suspicious movement. She knew immediately what it was. The Spanish invaders who had brought violence and destruction upon her city were trying to sneak out with their lives.

“Come quickly! Our enemies are running away in the night!,” the woman shouted.

Only months before, the Aztec emperor, Montezuma, had welcomed the Spanish strangers into the city as guests. But his people soon came to despise them.

The Spanish men, known to history as conquistadores, had demanded piles of gold from their Aztec hosts. They eventually turned violent, slaughtering worshippers at a religious festival. Enraged, the people of Tenochtitlan had risen up against the invaders—setting off a series of deadly battles. 

It was just after midnight on July 1, 1520. A woman was gathering water at the edge of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan (tay-nawch-TEE-tlan). She saw a suspicious movement out of the corner of her eye. She knew right away that it was the Spanish invaders. They had brought violence and destruction upon her city. Now they were trying to sneak out with their lives.

“Come quickly! Our enemies are running away in the night!,” the woman shouted.

Montezuma was the Aztec emperor. Only months before, he had welcomed the Spanish strangers into the city as guests. But his people soon came to hate them.

The Spanish men, known to history as conquistadores, had demanded piles of gold from their Aztec hosts. In time, they turned violent. They killed many worshippers at a religious festival. Enraged, the people of Tenochtitlan had risen up against the invaders. That set off a series of deadly battles.

Once a nomadic group that moved throughout Mesoamerica, the Aztec people settled in central Mexico in the 12th century. There they built a great civilization with advanced systems of farming and writing. All Aztec children, rich or poor, were educated. That was rare in any society at the time. 

At the center of the Aztec world was Tenochtitlan. A marvel of culture and engineering, it featured magnificent palaces, temples, and gardens. The city grew to a population of 200,000, one of the world’s largest then. Its residents called themselves Mexica (muh-SHEE-kuh), the origin of the name Mexico.

The Aztec people were once a nomadic group that moved throughout Mesoamerica. They settled in central Mexico in the 12th century. There they built a great civilization with advanced systems of farming and writing. All Aztec children, rich or poor, were educated. That was rare in any society at the time.

At the center of the Aztec world was Tenochtitlan. It was a marvel of culture and engineering. It featured stunning palaces, temples, and gardens. The city grew to a population of 200,000, one of the world’s largest then. Its residents called themselves Mexica (muh-SHEE-kuh). That is where the name Mexico came from.

By the time Montezuma came to power as emperor in 1502, the Aztec Empire had spread to the Gulf of Mexico (see map, below). 

With his army, Montezuma expanded the area to include some 400 city-states—mostly of other indigenous cultures. 

Yet resentment toward the empire was building. Montezuma made conquered territories provide him with enslaved workers and regular supplies of food and clothing. And he had enemies, such as the city-state of Tlaxcala to the east, which he had been unable to defeat. But trouble was also coming from farther away.

By the time Montezuma came to power as emperor in 1502, the Aztec Empire had spread to the Gulf of Mexico (see map, below).

With his army, Montezuma expanded the area. It included about 400 city-states. Most were of other indigenous cultures.

A growing number of people resented the empire. Montezuma made conquered territories send him enslaved workers and regular supplies of food and clothing. And he had enemies, such as the city-state of Tlaxcala to the east, which he had been unable to defeat. But trouble was also coming from farther away.

By 1519, the era known as the Age of Exploration was in full swing in the Americas (see “What You Need to Know,” above). Spanish conquistadores controlled much of the Caribbean Sea, including the island of Cuba. But they were desperate for gold and to conquer more territory—in part to enslave more indigenous people, who they did not see as fully human.

The governor of Cuba tapped Cortés to explore the landmass to the west­ (what today is Mexico). Cortés quickly began gathering up men and supplies—so many, in fact, that the governor worried he planned to set up his own colony. Ordered to stop, Cortés instead ignored the governor and sailed west.

By the time Cortés landed on the eastern coast of Mexico in April 1519, he was already hearing tales of a great inland city rich in gold: Tenochtitlan. That August, Cortés and about 300 conquistadores set off for the Aztec capital, vowing “to conquer the land or die.”

Along the way, the group reached Tlaxcala, Montezuma’s sworn enemy. Seeing a chance to defeat their old foe, the Tlaxcalan leaders sent Cortés on his way to the Aztec capital with 1,000 or more of their people.

Montezuma, who had spies everywhere, was alarmed. Several times during Cortés’s 250-mile journey, the emperor sent messengers with gifts, politely asking him to stay away. Yet on November 8, 1519, Cortés and his forces started over the main southern bridge to Tenochtitlan.

By 1519, the era known as the Age of Exploration was in full swing in the Americas (see “What You Need to Know,” above). Spanish conquistadores controlled much of the Caribbean Sea, including the island of Cuba. But they were desperate for gold. They also wanted to conquer more territory—in part to enslave more indigenous people. The conquistadores did not see the indigenous people as fully human.

The governor of Cuba called on Cortés to explore the landmass to the west (what today is Mexico). Cortés quickly began gathering up large numbers of men and supplies. Worried he planned to set up his own colony, the governor ordered him to stop. Cortés ignored the governor and sailed west.

Cortés landed on the eastern coast of Mexico in April 1519. By that time, he was already hearing tales of a great inland city rich in gold: Tenochtitlan. That August, Cortés and about 300 conquistadores set off for the Aztec capital, determined “to conquer the land or die.”

Along the way, the group reached Tlaxcala, Montezuma’s sworn enemy. The Tlaxcalan leaders saw a chance to defeat their old foe. They sent Cortés on his way to the Aztec capital with 1,000 or more of their people.

Hearing about this alarmed Montezuma, who had spies everywhere. Several times during Cortés’s 250-mile journey, the emperor sent messengers with gifts. Politely, they asked him to stay away. Yet on November 8, 1519, Cortés and his forces started over the main southern bridge to Tenochtitlan.

Then, in April 1520, Cortés got word that Cuba’s governor had sent soldiers to arrest him for defying orders. He rushed off to confront them, hoping to avoid such a fate. 

The armed Spanish men he left behind were convinced that they would soon be attacked by their hosts. They went on a rampage, slaughtering many Aztec worshippers at a religious festival.

Finally, the people of Tenochtitlan rose up against the invaders, determined to defend the city against their violence. By the time Cortés returned, the capital was in the midst of an all-out war. 

Then, suddenly, Montezuma died. Many historians believe he was killed by a Spanish captain. Whatever the truth, the emperor’s death further inflamed the uprising.

Cortés saw that his men would all be killed if they did not get out immediately. Many didn’t survive the midnight escape attempt. It seemed like a total Spanish defeat.

Then, in April 1520, Cortés got word that Cuba’s governor had sent soldiers to arrest him for defying orders. Hoping to stop that from happening, he rushed off to meet them.

The armed Spanish men he left behind were sure that they would soon be attacked by their hosts. They went on a rampage. They killed many Aztec worshippers at a religious festival.

Finally, the people of Tenochtitlan rose up against the invaders. They were determined to defend the city against the invaders’ violence. By the time Cortés returned, the capital was in the midst of an all-out war.

Then, suddenly, Montezuma died. Many historians believe he was killed by a Spanish captain. Whatever the truth, the emperor’s death made the uprising worse.

Cortés saw that his men would all be killed if they did not get out immediately. Many did not survive the midnight escape attempt. It seemed like a total Spanish defeat.

Cortés retreated to Tlaxcala. But he vowed to return to Tenochtitlan—and this time to conquer it. He sent out requests for more arms and men, rebuilding his fighting force.

Importantly, he also found new allies among the leaders of other indigenous cities. Some had long hoped to be rid of the Aztec Empire. Others had been Aztec allies but now chose to back Cortés because they believed his army would likely win the coming war.

At the same time, an epidemic of smallpox brought by the Spanish forces swept through Tenochtitlan. It killed up to half the city’s people, leaving them vulnerable to attack. 

About 10 months after he had fled Tenochtitlan, Cortés returned with nearly 1,000 Spanish men and tens of thousands of indigenous warriors. His forces had steel swords, guns, and horses, which gave them an advantage over the Aztec warriors. After three brutal months of battle, Tenochtitlan finally fell. 

Cortés retreated to Tlaxcala. But he promised that he would return to Tenochtitlan—and conquer it. He sent out requests for more arms and men, rebuilding his fighting force.

Importantly, he also found new allies among the leaders of other indigenous cities. Some had long hoped to be rid of the Aztec Empire. Others had been Aztec allies but now chose to back Cortés. They did it because they believed his army would likely win the coming war.

At the same time, an epidemic of smallpox brought by the Spanish forces swept through Tenochtitlan. It killed up to half the city’s people. That weakened them, leaving them open to attack.

About 10 months after he had fled Tenochtitlan, Cortés returned. He had nearly 1,000 Spanish men and tens of thousands of indigenous warriors. His forces had steel swords, guns, and horses. That gave them an advantage over the Aztec warriors. After three brutal months of battle, Tenochtitlan finally fell.

The defeated Aztec Empire would become the heart of a European territory called New Spain. Within decades, it grew to contain all of Mexico. Eventually, Spain’s empire included part of the future United States and much of South America.

The result was disastrous for indigenous people. As the conquerors expanded their territory, they enslaved millions of people. Millions of others died through warfare and from European diseases. Historians estimate that up to 90 percent of the Americas’ indigenous people were wiped out within a century of Spanish rule.

The defeated Aztec Empire would become the heart of a European territory called New Spain. Within decades, it grew to contain all of Mexico. Spain’s empire eventually included part of the future United States and much of South America.

The result was a disaster for indigenous people. As the conquerors expanded their territory, they enslaved millions of people. Millions of others died through warfare and from European diseases. Historians estimate that up to 90 percent of the indigenous people of the Americas were wiped out within a century of Spanish rule.

Still, many indigenous people adapted and survived. Aztec history and culture continue to strongly influence Mexican life. Today many of the remains of Tenochtitlan lie under Mexico City, the capital of Mexico. There, archaeologists carefully excavate the Aztec past.

In 1981, a worker unearthed something startling: a bar of gold. Earlier this year, scientists determined that it had been lost in the water during the conquistadores’ desperate escape 500 years ago—a ghostly reminder of the conquest of one of the world’s great civilizations.

Still, many indigenous people adapted and survived. Aztec history and culture continue to strongly influence Mexican life. Today, many of the remains of Tenochtitlan lie under Mexico City, the capital of Mexico. There, archaeologists carefully dig up the Aztec past.

In 1981, a worker unearthed something startling: a bar of gold. Earlier this year, scientists determined that it had been lost in the water 500 years ago, during the conquistadores’ desperate escape. That gold bar is a ghostly reminder of the conquest of one of the world’s great civilizations.