The Fire That Changed America

At the beginning of the 20th century, New York City was home to a booming garment industry. More than 40 percent of all clothing sold in U.S. stores was made there. But the work was grueling for the men, women, and children who sewed those garments. 

Hundreds of thousands of them were recent immigrants (see "A Changing Population," below). Many pieced together clothes in their own cramped homes. Even in large workplaces, such as Triangle, people labored long hours for low pay. If workers were out sick or got injured, they often lost their jobs.

Compared with many factories, Triangle was a big improvement. Located in a new high-rise building, its workspaces were bright and airy. “[It] was considered a state-of-the-art building,” says Triangle historian Michael Hirsch. 

However, like most high-rises in New York City at the time, it was not fire safe. The stairs were narrow and twisting, making it impossible for large numbers of people to evacuate quickly. It had only one rickety fire escape. And there was no law requiring buildings to have sprinklers—even though experts knew they could save lives. What’s more, few factories held fire drills because doing so would have interfered with production. That meant that when the fire broke out, people didn’t know how to escape.

At the beginning of the 20th century, New York City was home to a booming garment industry. More than 40 percent of all clothing sold in U.S. stores was made there. But the work was extremely hard on the men, women, and children who sewed those garments. 

Hundreds of thousands of them were recent immigrants (see sidebar, right). Many made the clothes in their own very small homes. Even in large workplaces like Triangle, people worked long hours for low pay. Workers who were out sick or got hurt often lost their jobs.

Compared with many factories, Triangle was a big improvement. It was in a new high-rise building. It had bright and airy workspaces. “[It] was considered a state-of-the-art building,” says Triangle historian Michael Hirsch. 

But it was not fire safe. Neither were most New York City high-rises at the time. The stairs were narrow and twisting. That made it impossible for large numbers of people to evacuate quickly. It had only one rickety fire escape. And there was no law requiring buildings to have sprinklers, even though experts knew sprinklers could save lives. Also, few factories held fire drills because fire drills would have interfered with production. So when the fire broke out, people did not know how to escape.

The trouble started on the eighth floor, at about 4:40 p.m. Workers there cut big sheets of cotton into pieces and tossed the leftover material into bins. An employee likely threw a smoldering match or cigarette butt into one of those bins. 

In an instant, the fabric scraps ignited. Flames spread from bin to bin. Managers and workers rushed to put the fire out with buckets of water, but it was too intense. Flames began pouring out the windows, racing toward the upper two floors of the factory.

The phone operator on the eighth floor called to alert the tenth floor. That warning allowed the people there to escape up to the roof. But in the chaos, no one warned the ninth floor, where Ethel and her coworkers were finishing for the day. 

By the time they saw the fire, it had exploded into a raging inferno. Frantically, they tried to climb over the long tables away from the flames. 

But where could they go?

The trouble started at about 4:40 p.m. on the eighth floor. Workers there were cutting big sheets of cotton into pieces. They tossed the leftover material into bins. An employee likely threw a still-burning match or cigarette butt into one of those bins. 

In an instant, the fabric scraps caught fire. Flames spread from bin to bin. Managers and workers rushed to put out the fire with buckets of water. But the fire was too intense. Flames began pouring out the windows and raced toward the factory’s top two floors.

The phone operator on the eighth floor called to alert the tenth floor. That warning allowed the people there to escape up to the roof. But in the chaos, no one warned the ninth floor. That was where Ethel and her coworkers were finishing for the day. 

By the time they saw the fire, it had exploded into a raging inferno. The terrified workers tried to climb over the long tables away from the flames. 

But where could they go?

On the ninth floor, fire and smoke quickly blocked all but four paths to safety. One was the fire escape, but it was soon overcrowded with dozens of frantic workers and tore away from the building. Almost none of those people survived.

Now there were just three ways out of the ninth floor—two passenger elevators and a staircase. With a crowd of workers pressing in around her, Ethel ran to the staircase door and tried to yank it open. The door wouldn’t budge. It was locked, she was certain! 

The crowd pushed Ethel toward the elevators, the last route of escape. Heroically, Joseph Zito and Gaspar Mortillalo, the building’s elevator operators, kept making trips up through the flames. But only about two dozen workers could fit at a time—and Ethel could only watch as car after car left without her.

Those who did manage to get into the elevators looked back to witness a terrible sight: Desperate to escape the fire, some of their co-workers were jumping out the windows. 

On the ninth floor, fire and smoke quickly blocked all but four paths to safety. One way was the fire escape. But it was soon overcrowded with dozens of desperate workers. It tore away from the building. Almost none of those people survived.

Now there were only three ways out of the ninth floor—two passenger elevators and a staircase. A crowd of workers pressed in around Ethel, who ran to the staircase door. She tried to yank it open. The door would not move. She was sure it was locked! 

The crowd then pushed Ethel toward the elevators. They were the last hope for escape. Joseph Zito and Gaspar Mortillalo were the building’s elevator operators. They heroically kept making trips up through the flames. But only about two dozen workers could fit at a time. Ethel could only watch as car after car left without her.

Some people did manage to get into the elevators. They looked back to witness a terrible sight: Desperate to escape the fire, some of their co-workers were jumping out the windows. 

Back at the elevators, Ethel was crushed between dozens of frantic workers. She thought for certain she was doomed. Then, miraculously, an empty elevator opened in front of her. The rush of women pushed her in, smashing her against the elevator’s back wall. 

After a ride down that felt like an eternity, Ethel found herself on the street. Overcome with emotion, she began scratching at her face and tearing her hair. “There were 150 girls up there who will never get out,” she told a newspaper reporter.

By now, a crowd had gathered, horrified at the scene unfolding above them. Firefighters had arrived quickly, but the water pressure from the hydrants on the street was too weak to subdue the flames. They set up a ladder to rescue the workers gathered on the ninth-floor ledge, but it only reached the sixth floor. 

Back at the elevators, Ethel was crushed between dozens of terrified workers. She thought for sure she was doomed. Then an empty elevator opened in front of her. It felt like a miracle. The rush of women pushed her in, smashing her against the elevator’s back wall. 

The ride down seemed to take forever. But then Ethel found herself on the street. She was overcome with emotion. She began scratching at her face and tearing her hair. “There were 150 girls up there who will never get out,” she told a newspaper reporter.

By now, a crowd had gathered. They were horrified at the scene taking place above them. Firefighters had arrived quickly. But the water pressure from the hydrants on the street was too weak to put out the flames. They set up a ladder to rescue the workers gathered on the ninth-floor ledge. But it reached only to the sixth floor. 

Firefighters battled the flames floor by floor. Within half an hour, they had contained the fire. But in that brief period, 146 workers had died. Dozens of them had jumped.

New Yorkers were outraged. A week later, many of them held a meeting to protest conditions in the city’s factories. Speakers from labor unions—groups organized to protect the rights of workers—argued that business owners cared more about making money than keeping their employees safe. 

“The life of men and women is so cheap,” Rose Schneiderman of the International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union (ILGWU) proclaimed. 

About two weeks after the fire, seven unidentified Triangle victims were buried in a single grave. More than 120,000 people marched in a funeral procession in the rain while hundreds of thousands looked on. 

Many people blamed the Triangle factory owners, Max Blanck and Isaac Harris, for the catastrophe. They were certain the men had locked the ninth-floor staircase door to keep employees from stealing fabric. That December, Blanck and Harris were tried on charges of manslaughter. Ethel and other workers testified against them. But the jury couldn’t agree on whether the door had been locked and, if it had, whether the owners knew about it. The men were acquitted, or released from the charges. 

Firefighters battled the flames floor by floor. Within half an hour, they had contained the fire. But in that brief period, 146 workers had died. Dozens of them had jumped.

New Yorkers were outraged. A week later, many of them held a meeting to protest conditions in the city’s factories. Speakers from labor unions argued that business owners cared more about making money than keeping their employees safe. Labor unions are groups organized to protect the rights of workers.

“The life of men and women is so cheap,” Rose Schneiderman declared. She was with the International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union (ILGWU). 

About two weeks after the fire, seven unidentified Triangle victims were buried in a single grave. More than 120,000 people marched in a funeral procession in the rain. Hundreds of thousands looked on. 

Many people blamed Max Blanck and Isaac Harris for the disaster. They were the Triangle factory’s owners. People were certain the men had locked the ninth-floor staircase door to keep employees from stealing fabric. That December, Blanck and Harris were tried on charges of manslaughter. Ethel and other workers testified against them. But the jury could not agree on whether the door had been locked. And if it had been locked, did the owners know about it? The men were acquitted, or released from the charges. 

Still, the Triangle fire led to profound change. Just two months after the disaster, New York State formed a commission to study the conditions in thousands of factories. That group’s recommendations resulted in dozens of laws that greatly improved conditions for factory workers (see "3 Ways Triangle Changes America," below).

Still, the Triangle fire led to major changes. Just two months after the disaster, New York State formed a commission to study the conditions in thousands of factories. That group’s recommendations resulted in dozens of new laws. The laws greatly improved conditions for factory workers (see "3 Ways Triangle Changed America," below).

Some of the most important new rules revolutionized fire safety. For the first time, automatic sprinklers were mandatory in most buildings. Companies were also required to show workers where and how to evacuate in case of an emergency. 

New York’s reforms then spread to other states. “Triangle is the reason we have fire drills,” says Hirsch, “so that you know how to save yourself and your friends.”

Outrage over the disaster also prompted the rise of labor unions like the ILGWU, which became a powerful force for workers’ rights.

In the end, many Americans responded to the tragedy by making important changes in how workers were treated, says Peter Liebhold, a curator at the Smithsonian Institution. “Triangle became an iconic event” that transformed the country for the better.

As for Ethel, surviving the Triangle fire remained a defining incident in her life. Nearly half a century later, a historian visited Ethel, who was surrounded by her grandchildren. The world of those young people was already so different—they went to school, not work, each morning, and they didn’t have to worry about their safety as Ethel had. To them, her stories of the long-ago tragedy seemed almost impossible.

“They have all listened to me politely,” Ethel said to the historian about the Triangle fire. “But, you know, I think not one of them has ever really believed me. Now you please tell them.” 

Some of the most important new rules changed fire safety. For the first time, automatic sprinklers were mandatory in most buildings. Companies were also required to show workers where and how to evacuate in case of an emergency. 

New York’s reforms then spread to other states. “Triangle is the reason we have fire drills,” says Hirsch, “so that you know how to save yourself and your friends.”

Outrage over the disaster also contributed to the rise of labor unions like the ILGWU. They became a powerful force for workers’ rights. 

In the end, many Americans responded to the tragedy by making important changes in how workers were treated, says Peter Liebhold. He is a curator at the Smithsonian Institution. “Triangle became an iconic event” that changed the country for the better.

As for Ethel, surviving the Triangle fire remained a defining incident in her life. Nearly half a century later, a historian visited Ethel. She was surrounded by her grandchildren. The world of those young people was already so different. They went to school, not work, each morning. And they did not have to worry about their safety as Ethel had. To them, her stories of the long-ago tragedy seemed almost impossible.

“They have all listened to me politely,” Ethel said to the historian about the Triangle fire. “But, you know, I think not one of them has ever really believed me. Now you please tell them.”