"Forever Free"

The struggle over slavery had been a part of the U.S. since its founding. The institution was common in the 13 American Colonies. Gradually, Northern U.S. states ended it, partly because of the influence of abolitionists—people opposed to slavery. Also, slavery was not as essential to the Northern economy. Yet the rural South, which relied on the profits from growing cotton and other crops, viewed the labor of enslaved people as vital.

During the writing of the U.S. Constitution in 1787, delegates from Southern states had threatened to walk out unless slavery was protected in their part of the country. That didn’t end the debate though.

As the young nation expanded in the decades that followed, the argument over whether the practice should be allowed to spread to new states continually threatened to pull the country apart. 

For the South, the last straw came in November 1860 with the election of Lincoln as president. At the time, about 3.9 million people of African descent were being held in bondage in the U.S. The majority of them were in the South. Lincoln had steadily opposed the spread of slavery. Southern leaders feared that, under Lincoln, the federal government would try to end slavery nationwide. They thought that each state should make that decision for itself.

The struggle over slavery had been a part of the U.S. since it was founded. The institution was common in the 13 American Colonies. Gradually, Northern U.S. states ended it. That was partly because of the influence of abolitionists—people opposed to slavery. Also, slavery was not as essential to the Northern economy. But the rural South relied on the profits from growing cotton and other crops. So Southerners viewed the labor of enslaved people as vital.

During the writing of the U.S. Constitution in 1787, delegates from Southern states had threatened to walk out unless slavery was protected in their part of the country. But that did not end the debate.

In the decades that followed, the young nation expanded. But there was still an argument over whether the practice should be allowed to spread to new states. It continually threatened to pull the country apart.

For the South, the last straw came when Lincoln was elected president in November 1860. At the time, about 3.9 million people of African descent were being held in bondage in the U.S. Most of them were in the South. Lincoln had steadily opposed the spread of slavery. So Southern leaders feared that, under Lincoln, the federal government would try to end slavery nationwide. They thought that each state should decide for itself.

Declaring Lincoln and the North “hostile to slavery,” South Carolina seceded from the Union in December 1860. Within months, 10 more of the 34 U.S. states followed. Together, the states that had left the Union declared themselves the Confederate States of America.

Lincoln still hoped to keep the country together, even if it meant letting slavery continue in some places. At his inauguration on March 4, 1861, he said: “I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists.” 

But the wheels were already in motion. On April 12, Confederate guns opened fire on Union-held Fort Sumter at Charleston, South Carolina. America’s Civil War had begun.

South Carolina declared Lincoln and the North “hostile to slavery.” It seceded from the Union in December 1860. Within months, 10 more of the 34 U.S. states followed. Together, the states that had left the Union declared themselves the Confederate States of America.

Lincoln still hoped to keep the country together. He wanted to do so even if it meant letting slavery continue in some places. His inauguration was on March 4, 1861. In his speech, he said: “I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists.”

But the wheels were already in motion. On April 12, Confederate guns opened fire on Union-held Fort Sumter at Charleston, South Carolina. America’s Civil War had begun.

In theory, the Union had the upper hand in the struggle. It had far more people, factories, and wealth than the Confederate states. Yet the Confederacy had its own strengths, including a long military tradition and a strong belief that its independence was threatened by the Union.  

Confederate forces swiftly defeated Union troops in a series of early Civil War battles. As the death tolls and Union losses mounted, Lincoln faced growing criticism over how the war was being fought. Meanwhile, abolitionists blasted him for not moving to end slavery.

The president wrestled with his beliefs. He hated slavery, but because it was then protected by the Constitution, Lincoln believed he could not take bold action against it. He also faced resistance from many Northerners who insisted that the war was being fought to preserve the Union, not to free enslaved people.

Lincoln did try to use his influence on Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware. Although slavery was still legal in those border states, they remained part of the Union—for now. Lincoln offered to pay enslavers in those states to gradually free their people. But they resisted. The president feared that pushing too hard would cause those states to leave a fragile Union and join the Confederacy. 

Feeling stuck on all fronts, Lincoln looked for a way forward.

In theory, the Union had the upper hand in the struggle. It had far more people, factories, and wealth than the Confederate states. Yet the Confederacy had its own strengths. Those included a long military tradition and a strong belief that its independence was threatened by the Union.

Confederate forces swiftly defeated Union troops in a series of early Civil War battles. The death tolls and Union losses mounted. And Lincoln faced growing criticism over how the war was being fought. Meanwhile, abolitionists blasted him for not moving to end slavery.

The president wrestled with his beliefs. He hated slavery. But it was then protected by the Constitution, so Lincoln believed he could not take bold action against it. He also faced resistance from many Northerners who insisted that the war was being fought to preserve the Union, not to free enslaved people.

Lincoln did try to use his influence on Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware. Slavery was still legal in those border states. But for now, they remained part of the Union. Lincoln offered to pay enslavers in those states to gradually free their people. But they resisted. The president feared pushing too hard. He did not want to cause those states to leave a fragile Union and join the Confederacy.

Lincoln felt stuck on all fronts. He looked for a way forward.

On May 23, 1861, part of the solution appeared at Fortress Monroe, a Union outpost on the Virginia coast. That night, soldiers there were taken aback by an unexpected sight: three Black men rowing up to their camp. They had escaped from bondage under a Confederate officer. The Union commander declared the three men to be “contraband”—material seized from an enemy. They began to work at the fort—as free men.

Word spread among the local Black population. By the end of July, more than 850 enslaved people had escaped to the “freedom fort.” 

Then, in November, the Union Navy seized the Sea Islands of South Carolina. The local enslavers fled. The nearly 10,000 Black people they left behind formed an encampment of newly freed people on the island of Port Royal. 

Over the following months, the numbers of self-emancipated Black Americans would steadily grow into the tens of thousands at these and other “contraband camps” near wherever Union troops established bases. Their numbers became impossible to ignore. And with their knowledge of local roads and Confederate troop movements, the escapees proved invaluable to Union commanders. In addition, many took on jobs in the camps—everything from building defenses to cooking to working as nurses. 

On the Union side, everyone from soldiers to Congress took notice, says Steven F. Miller, a historian at the University of Maryland. “The escape of the enslaved to Union lines [and their] contribution to the war effort convinced more and more Northerners that the war for the Union must be a war against slavery.”

On May 23, 1861, part of the solution appeared at Fortress Monroe. That was a Union outpost on the Virginia coast. That night, soldiers there were taken aback by an unexpected sight. They saw three Black men rowing up to their camp. They had escaped from bondage under a Confederate officer. The Union commander declared the three men to be “contraband.” That is material seized from an enemy. The three began to work at the fort as free men.

Word spread among the local Black population. By the end of July, more than 850 enslaved people had escaped to the “freedom fort.”

Then, in November, the Union Navy seized the Sea Islands of South Carolina. The local enslavers fled. Nearly 10,000 Black people were left behind. They formed an encampment of newly freed people on the island of Port Royal.

Over the following months, the numbers of self-emancipated Black Americans steadily grew into the tens of thousands at these and other “contraband camps” near places where Union troops set up bases. Their numbers became impossible to ignore. The escapees also knew the local roads and Confederate troop movements, making them invaluable to Union commanders. In addition, many took on jobs in the camps. They did everything from building defenses to cooking to working as nurses.

On the Union side, everyone from soldiers to Congress took notice, says Steven F. Miller. He is a historian at the University of Maryland. “The escape of the enslaved to Union lines [and their] contribution to the war effort convinced more and more Northerners that the war for the Union must be a war against slavery.”

Yet the Union was still losing badly. By summer 1862, Lincoln devised a controversial new strategy: to declare the enslaved people of the Confederacy free, weakening the rebellion militarily and financially in the process. He was gambling that, as Black Americans being forced to work for the Confederacy heard about the decree, they would flee to Union lines. Still, not wanting to seem as if he was acting from weakness, Lincoln decided to wait for a Union victory to announce his plan.

Then, at the Battle of Antietam on September 17, Union forces turned back Confederate troops trying to invade Maryland. It was not an overwhelming Union victory. But Lincoln felt it was enough.

The preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, issued September 22, declared that the enslaved people of the Confederacy would be considered free on New Year’s Day—unless those states laid down their arms first. 

Confederate officials greeted the decree with scorn. Abolitionists criticized the plan too—for not going far enough. It would not free enslaved people in the border states. 

Douglass, however, recognized the document’s symbolic power. “We shout for joy that we live to record this righteous decree,” he wrote. The president may move slowly, but “Abraham Lincoln will take no step backward.” 

Yet the Union was still losing badly. By summer 1862, Lincoln came up with a controversial new strategy. He would declare the enslaved people of the Confederacy free. That would weaken the rebellion militarily and financially. He was gambling that Black Americans being forced to work for the Confederacy would hear about the decree. And that when they did, they would flee to Union lines. Still, Lincoln did not want to seem as if he was acting from weakness. So he decided to wait for a Union victory to announce his plan.

Then, at the Battle of Antietam on September 17, Union forces turned back Confederate troops trying to invade Maryland. It was not an overwhelming Union victory. But Lincoln felt it was enough.

The preliminary Emancipation Proclamation was issued September 22. It declared that the enslaved people of the Confederacy would be considered free on New Year’s Day—unless those states laid down their arms first.

Confederate officials greeted the decree with scorn. Abolitionists criticized the plan too. They said it did not go far enough. It would not free enslaved people in the border states.

But Douglass recognized the document’s symbolic power. “We shout for joy that we live to record this righteous decree,” he wrote. The president may move slowly, but “Abraham Lincoln will take no step backward.”

In the following months, the war continued with increasing ferocity and heavy Union losses. Then New Year’s Eve arrived. In the North, Black and White abolitionists gathered, separately and together, with great expectation for the president’s proclamation. At the contraband camps, people sang, prayed, and gave speeches for hours. “They can’t sell my wife and children anymore, bless the Lord,” said one man at a Washington, D.C., camp. 

At the White House, the actual signing was delayed until late in the day, in part because an error in the handwritten document had required it to be redone. Also, Lincoln had spent hours receiving a long line of New Year’s guests. Finally, the president retired to his office to sign the decree. 

“If my name ever goes into history,” Lincoln reportedly said, “it will be for this act.”

The crowd waiting at the Tremont Temple in Boston trembled with anticipation. “Every moment of waiting chilled our hopes,” Douglass later wrote. “Eight, nine, 10 o’clock came and went, and still no word.” At last, someone rushed through the crowd, shouting, “It is coming! It is on the [telegraph] wires!” Soon, someone else arrived to read the proclamation aloud—but was quickly drowned out by celebrations “wild and grand,” Douglass recalled.

“We wanted to join in the shout for freedom,” he wrote, “and in the anthem of the redeemed.”

In the following months, the war continued with increasing ferocity and heavy Union losses. Then New Year’s Eve arrived. In the North, Black and White abolitionists gathered separately and together. They had great expectation for the president’s proclamation. At the contraband camps, people sang, prayed, and gave speeches for hours. “They can’t sell my wife and children anymore, bless the Lord,” said one man at a Washington, D.C., camp.

At the White House, the actual signing was delayed until late in the day. For one thing, the handwritten document had to be redone because of an error. Also, Lincoln had spent hours greeting a long line of New Year’s guests. Finally, the president retired to his office to sign the decree.

“If my name ever goes into history,” Lincoln reportedly said, “it will be for this act.”

The crowd waiting at Boston’s Tremont Temple trembled with anticipation. “Every moment of waiting chilled our hopes,” Douglass later wrote. “Eight, nine, 10 o’clock came and went, and still no word.” At last, someone rushed through the crowd, shouting, “It is coming! It is on the [telegraph] wires!” Soon, someone else arrived to read the proclamation aloud. But the reading was quickly drowned out by celebrations “wild and grand,” Douglass recalled.

“We wanted to join in the shout for freedom,” he wrote, “and in the anthem of the redeemed.”

Still, the institution of slavery remained technically legal. Lincoln’s proclamation applied only to the states in rebellion. The president knew that to actually free all of America’s enslaved people, the Constitution would have to be changed. Only the 13th Amendment would be able to do that. Passed by Congress in January 1865, it needed approval by the states to take effect. 

Assassinated in mid-April, Lincoln did not live to see the amendment ratified nearly eight months later, in December 1865. With its ratification, slavery in the U.S. was abolished.

Today experts agree that the end of slavery would not have happened without Lincoln. And yet, many say, it was also the determination of America’s enslaved people to seek liberty that truly made the difference. 

As historian Barbara J. Fields has written, “By the time Lincoln issued his Emancipation Proclamation, no human being alive could have held back the tide that swept toward freedom.”

Still, the institution of slavery remained technically legal. Lincoln’s proclamation applied only to the states in rebellion. He knew that to actually free all of America’s enslaved people, the Constitution would have to be changed. Only the 13th Amendment would be able to do that. It was passed by Congress in January 1865. But it would need approval by the states to take effect.

Assassinated in mid-April, Lincoln did not live to see the amendment ratified. That happened nearly eight months later, in December 1865. With the ratification, slavery was abolished in the U.S.

Today experts agree that slavery would not have ended without Lincoln. But, many say, it also was the determination of America’s enslaved people to seek liberty that truly made the difference.

As historian Barbara J. Fields has written, “By the time Lincoln issued his Emancipation Proclamation, no human being alive could have held back the tide that swept toward freedom.”