One surprising but important fact about Cleopatra is that Egypt’s last pharaoh was not, strictly speaking, Egyptian. Her family descended from Ptolemy I, who was originally from the European kingdom of Macedonia. He was a chief officer under Alexander the Great, the famed military commander who conquered Egypt in 332 B.C. After Alexander’s death, his top generals divided up his empire. Ptolemy took control of Egypt and founded a dynasty that lasted for 300 years. 

Ptolemy I moved the kingdom’s capital from the city of Memphis to Alexandria. Over time, Alexandria became one of the greatest cities of its day. Its university and library were the source of much of the ancient world’s learning. A center of trade, its streets teemed with people from all over the known world.

And yet, says Roller, “the Ptolemies had little contact with the mass of Egyptians, essentially never leaving Alexandria.” That was something Cleopatra, born in 69 B.C., would change.

As a child of royalty, Cleopatra received the best education available. Historians say she was exceptionally smart, spoke multiple languages, and possessed great charm. Displaying a strong interest in the people who would later become her subjects, she may have been the only member of her family’s dynasty to learn the Egyptian language.

Following a longstanding practice, Cleopatra and her younger brother became co-rulers when their father died in 51 B.C. It would take every bit of her smarts to survive what she had inherited.

One surprising but important fact about Cleopatra is that Egypt’s last pharaoh was not, strictly speaking, Egyptian. Her family descended from Ptolemy I. He was originally from the European kingdom of Macedonia. Ptolemy I was a chief officer under Alexander the Great, the famed military commander who conquered Egypt in 332 B.C. After Alexander’s death, his top generals divided up his empire. Ptolemy I took control of Egypt. He founded a dynasty that lasted for 300 years.

Ptolemy I moved the kingdom’s capital from the city of Memphis to Alexandria. Over time, Alexandria became one of the greatest cities of its day. Its university and library were the source of much of the ancient world’s learning. It was also a center of trade. Its streets were crowded with people from all over the known world.

And yet, says Roller, “the Ptolemies had little contact with the mass of Egyptians, essentially never leaving Alexandria.” That was something Cleopatra, born in 69 B.C., would change.

As a child of royalty, Cleopatra received the best education available. Historians say she was exceptionally smart. She spoke multiple languages. She possessed great charm. She may also have been the only member of her family’s dynasty to learn the Egyptian language. She showed a strong interest in the people who would later become her subjects.

Following a longstanding practice, Cleopatra and her younger brother became co-rulers when their father died in 51 B.C. It would take all of her smarts to survive what she had inherited.

Especially after her brother’s death, Cleopatra threw herself into the task of ruling Egypt. Doing so involved a steady stream of meetings, decisions, and demands for justice from ordinary citizens who came to her with their complaints. 

The lives of the Egyptian people—and the wealth of the royal family—depended on the grain that grew each year after the Nile flooded over its banks onto the fields. Cleopatra oversaw an enormously complex farming system that included distributing seeds and gathering crops. In bad years, when there wasn’t enough rain to flood the Nile, she would open up the kingdom’s stores of grain to hungry villagers.

Especially after her brother’s death, Cleopatra threw herself into the job of ruling Egypt. Doing so involved a steady stream of meetings, decisions, and demands for justice from ordinary citizens who came to her with their complaints.

The lives of the Egyptian people, and the royal family’s wealth, depended on grain. It grew each year after the Nile flooded over its banks onto the fields. Cleopatra oversaw a hugely complex farming system. It included giving out seeds and gathering crops. In bad years, there was not enough rain to flood the Nile. So she would open the kingdom’s stores of grain to hungry villagers.

The queen embraced Egypt’s deep cultural history. Cleopatra regularly appeared at religious festivals dressed as Isis, the Egyptian goddess whose tears were said to cause the Nile to rise. Ordinary Egyptians worshipped her for it.

“She was [judge], high priest, queen, and goddess,” writes historian Stacy Schiff. “She was also—on a day-to-day basis and far more frequently—chief executive officer.”

Cleopatra was no saint, however. She was probably involved in killing at least two rival siblings. But in the first years after Caesar left her in charge, the kingdom of Egypt was prosperous and at peace.

Importantly, Caesar also left her with an heir. In 47 B.C., Cleopatra gave birth to a son called Caesarion, who the Roman ruler would later acknowledge as his child.

What could go wrong?

The queen embraced Egypt’s deep cultural history. Cleopatra regularly appeared at religious festivals dressed as Isis, the Egyptian goddess whose tears were said to cause the Nile to rise. Ordinary Egyptians worshipped her for it.

“She was [judge], high priest, queen, and goddess,” writes Stacy Schiff, a historian. “She was also—on a day-to-day basis and far more frequently—chief executive officer.”

Cleopatra was no saint, however. She was probably involved in killing at least two rival siblings. But in the first years after Caesar left her in charge, the kingdom of Egypt was wealthy and at peace.

Importantly, Caesar also left her with an heir. In 47 B.C., Cleopatra gave birth to a son called Caesarion. The Roman ruler would later acknowledge him as his child.

What could go wrong?

In March 44 B.C., peace in the Mediterranean was shaken when Caesar was assassinated in Rome by a group of rebels. The murder would lead to a civil war that concluded two years later when the rebels were defeated by two of Caesar’s allies: Octavian, Caesar’s adopted son and heir, and a brilliant army officer named Marc Antony. 

After the war, Antony and Octavian agreed to be co-rulers, overseeing different Roman territories. Antony took land to the east, including in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). There, he set up camp at the city of Tarsus. Hearing a rumor that the queen of Egypt had aided the rebels who had killed Caesar, he sent for Cleopatra to report to him. 

Again, she made a memorable entrance. One day in the summer of 41 B.C., Antony received word of an amazing sight. It was the queen of Egypt, sailing up the river to Tarsus on a flower-covered ship to the music of flutes and harps. She lay under a canopy as young maidens steered the craft and the scent of incense wafted to shore. Cleopatra had come to report.

Like Caesar before him, Antony was wowed. Over the next few days, the two leaders met several times. Antony was not only satisfied by Cleopatra’s assurances of loyalty, he was impressed by her intelligence—along with the wealth of Egypt displayed in the jewels, tapestries, and golden drinking cups she had brought with her. The two may have discussed whether she could fund Antony’s plan to conquer Parthia (in modern-day Iran).

Later that year, Antony paid a visit to Alexandria. In late 40 B.C., Cleopatra gave birth to their twins. Once again, the queen had a link to a powerful Roman leader who could help safeguard her kingdom.

In March 44 B.C., peace in the Mediterranean was shaken. Caesar was assassinated in Rome by a group of rebels. The murder would lead to a civil war. The war ended two years later when the rebels were defeated by two of Caesar’s allies. The allies were Octavian, Caesar’s adopted son and heir, and a brilliant army officer named Marc Antony.

After the war, Antony and Octavian agreed to be co-rulers. They oversaw different Roman territories. Antony took land to the east, including in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). There, he set up camp at the city of Tarsus. He heard a rumor that the queen of Egypt had aided the rebels who had killed Caesar. So he sent for Cleopatra to report to him.

Again, she made a memorable entrance. One day in the summer of 41 B.C., Antony received word of an amazing sight. It was the queen of Egypt, sailing up the river to Tarsus on a flower-covered ship to the music of flutes and harps. She lay under a canopy as young maidens steered the craft. The scent of incense wafted to shore. Cleopatra had come to report.

Like Caesar before him, Antony was wowed. Over the next few days, the two leaders met several times. Antony was satisfied by Cleopatra’s assurances of loyalty. He was also impressed by her intelligence and by the wealth of Egypt displayed in the jewels, tapestries, and golden drinking cups she had brought with her. The two may have discussed whether she could fund Antony’s plan to conquer Parthia (in modern-day Iran).

Later that year, Antony visited Alexandria. In late 40 B.C., Cleopatra gave birth to their twins. Once again, the queen had a link to a powerful Roman leader who could help protect her kingdom.

By the time the babies were born, Antony and Cleopatra had gone back to their daily lives. For a few more years, all was calm in Egypt. 

But trouble eventually returned. Over time, Rome’s two ambitious rulers, Antony and Octavian, began to clash. Antony’s campaign against Parthia, paid for by Cleopatra, resulted in an embarrassing defeat. He began spending more and more time with the Egyptian queen—and not with his wife, Octavian’s sister. To make things worse, Antony began granting lands to Cleopatra that Rome had seized around the Mediterranean Sea.

By the time the babies were born, Antony and Cleopatra had gone back to their daily lives. For a few more years, all was calm in Egypt.

But trouble eventually returned. Over time, Rome’s two ambitious rulers, Antony and Octavian, began to clash. Antony’s campaign against Parthia was paid for by Cleopatra. It resulted in an embarrassing defeat. He began spending more time with the Egyptian queen instead of with his wife, Octavian’s sister. To make things worse, Antony began granting lands to Cleopatra that Rome had seized around the Mediterranean Sea.

Then in 34 B.C., Cleopatra and Antony held a grand ceremony in Alexandria. The couple sat side by side on golden thrones. Going forward, they announced, Cleopatra was to be known as “Queen of Kings.” Caesarion, her 13-year-old son by Julius Caesar, was to be called “King of Kings.” Octavian—who had been adopted by the former Roman ruler—must have been alarmed at the symbolism. Egypt was on the rise again, the ceremony seemed to announce. Would the only biological heir of the great Caesar someday come to claim Rome as rightfully his?

Octavian and his supporters began to denounce Antony—often by verbally attacking Cleopatra. Antony had disgraced himself by falling for a foreign queen, they said. They even claimed Cleopatra was demanding that Antony make Rome an Egyptian province!

Yet Antony remained popular in Rome, and Octavian did not want to start a new civil war. So in 32 B.C., he instead declared war on Cleopatra.

Then in 34 B.C., Cleopatra and Antony held a grand ceremony in Alexandria. The couple sat side by side on golden thrones. They announced that going forward, Cleopatra was to be known as “Queen of Kings.” Caesarion, her 13-year-old son by Julius Caesar, was to be called “King of Kings.” Octavian, who had been adopted by the former Roman ruler, must have been alarmed at the symbolism. The ceremony seemed to announce that Egypt was on the rise again. Would Caesarion, the only biological heir of the great Caesar, someday claim Rome as rightfully his?

Octavian and his supporters began to find fault with Antony. They often did so by verbally attacking Cleopatra. They said Antony had disgraced himself by falling for a foreign queen. They even claimed Cleopatra was demanding that Antony make Rome an Egyptian province!

Yet Antony remained popular in Rome. Octavian did not want to start a new civil war. So in 32 B.C., he instead declared war on Cleopatra.

Cleopatra and Antony accompanied their forces across the Mediterranean. In Greece, those forces clashed with Octavian’s but were badly outmaneuvered. Finally, on September 2, 31 B.C., Antony and Cleopatra’s navy was soundly defeated in the battle of Actium in the Ionian Sea. 

The two managed to escape back to Alexandria. But the end was coming. On August 1, 30 B.C., as Octavian closed in on Egypt with his army, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra sent messengers to try to make a deal with her foe—offering to step down if she could go safely into exile. Octavian gave no promises.

On August 10, 30 B.C., seeing no way out, the queen locked herself in the tomb where Antony’s body lay and took her own life. According to legend, she allowed herself to be bitten by a snake. Most historians today believe she took poison. Whatever the case, Cleopatra used her last act to deny Octavian the ability to capture and humiliate her.

Cleopatra and Antony crossed the Mediterranean with their forces. In Greece, those forces clashed with Octavian’s. But they were badly outmaneuvered. Finally, on September 2, 31 B.C., Antony and Cleopatra’s navy was soundly defeated in the battle of Actium in the Ionian Sea.

The two escaped back to Alexandria. But the end was coming. On August 1, 30 B.C., Octavian closed in on Egypt with his army. And Antony killed himself. Cleopatra sent messengers to try to make a deal with her enemy. She offered to step down if she could go safely into exile. Octavian gave no promises.

On August 10, 30 B.C., seeing no way out, the queen locked herself in the tomb where Antony’s body lay. She took her own life. According to legend, she let herself be bitten by a snake. Most historians today believe she took poison. Whatever the case, Cleopatra used her last act to deny Octavian the ability to capture and humiliate her.

Following Cleopatra’s death, Octavian acted quickly. First, he ordered the killing of Caesarion, her son by Caesar. Then he made Egypt a province of Rome.  

The collapse of the kingdom on the Nile marked a major transition in history. The glory days of Egypt were forever past. Rising in its wake was Rome, a force that would remake much of the world. 

Back home, Octavian would take the name Augustus Caesar, with which he would become the first Roman emperor. During his long reign, the Roman empire would nearly double in size. It would last for centuries.

Still, in many ways, Cleopatra has overshadowed her conqueror. Famous even in her day—beloved at home and scorned in Rome—she was what one modern writer has called “the first celebrity.” In the centuries since, she has inspired countless works of art, books, plays, and films. In bravely facing down an unstoppable foe, she acquired what historian Schiff calls “a brilliant afterlife”—and became a legend. 

Following Cleopatra’s death, Octavian acted quickly. First, he ordered the killing of Caesarion, her son by Caesar. Then he made Egypt a province of Rome.

The collapse of the kingdom on the Nile marked a major change in history. The glory days of Egypt were forever past. Rising in its wake was Rome. It was a force that would remake much of the world.

Back home, Octavian would take the name Augustus Caesar. With it he would become the first Roman emperor. During his long reign, the Roman empire would nearly double in size. It would last for centuries.

Still, in many ways, Cleopatra has overshadowed her conqueror. She was famous even in her day. She was beloved at home and scorned in Rome. One modern writer has called her “the first celebrity.” In the centuries since, she has inspired countless works of art, books, plays, and films. In bravely facing down an unstoppable foe, she acquired what historian Schiff calls “a brilliant afterlife”—and became a legend.